The Divisions of Islam
Islam's Sects
The Prophet Mohammad died in 632, having neglected to appoint a successor. Two of Muhammad’s closest associates emerged in contention to lead the early Islamic world. The majority of early Muslims endorsed Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s close friend and father-in-law. However, minority supported the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the prophet’s son-in-law and cousin. Ali’s cohorts wanted Mohammad’s family, the Hashimites to retain leadership. Eventually however, Ali agreed to the selection of Abu Bakr, the first Caliph.
Bakr ruled for two years, dying in 634, probably from natural causes. Umar ibn al-Khattab succeeded Bakr in accordance with his dying wishes; however. Al-Khattab was assassinated by a Persian slave four years later; he was replaced with Uthman ibn Affan. Affan ruled for twelve years, overseeing the rapid expansion of the Islamic empire. During his reign Affan empowered his own family, the Umayyad. Affan was assassinated in 656, but the Umayyad retained power while Ali hesitated to accept the Caliph position.
Ali ibn Abi Talib was eventually appointed the fourth Caliph. However, Affan’s cousin, Muawiyah ibn Abi-Sufyan contested Ali’s leadership. conflict ensued, culminating in the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Following Ali’s death Abi-Sufyan became Caliph. Abi Sufyan, while accepted by most Muslims, was unpopular among the followers of Ali. Those loyal to Ali, largely concentrated in Iraq became known as Shia’at’ali. The Shia were further alienated from the Umayyad by the murder and dismemberment of Ali’s son and Muhammad’s grandson, Husayn ibn Ali, in 680.
Ashoura is the annual festival marking the anniversary of the death of Muhammad’s grandson. It falls on the 10th of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic lunar calendar . Sunnis observe Ashura as well as Shias, but for different reasons. For Sunnis, Ashura marks two historical events; the day Noah vacated the Ark and the day that Moses was saved from the Egyptians by Allah.
The overwhelming majority of the world’s 1.3 billion Muslims are Sunnis. Shias constitute 10 to 15 percent of Muslims, between 130 and 195 million. The Shia minority is concentrated in the Middle East, where Shias and Sunnis are equally prevalent. Around the rim of the Persian Gulf, however, Shias actually comprise the majority, approximately 80 percent of the population.
Both Sunni and Shia Mislims adhere to the 5 pillars of Islam – praying five times daily, recognizing that Allah is the only god, completing the Hajj if possible, allocating an appropriate percentage of one’s income to the poor, and fasting during Ramadan – and venerate Allah and Muhammad. However, unlike the Sunnis, Shia also reserve high status for Ali, Muhammad’s grandson, Husayn, and Shia Imams. Devout Shia women generally wear black, as do the male religious leaders. Shias hold their hands at their sides when praying, while Sunnis clasp them. Shias are often recognized by their names, which are typically derived from the names or titles of saints. Shias who trace their lineage to the Imams carry the honorary title Sayyid. Shias often utilize visual imagery. Homes and businesses owned by Shias often feature portraits of Ali and Husayn; while black, green, and red (the colors of Shiaism) are often on display. Puritanical Sunnis are critical of Shia imagery, often condemning it as un-Islamic.
Reverence of Imams is also unique to Shiaism. Shias believe that Imams are descendants of Ali and the Prophet Muhammad, and are privy to the true knowledge of God; Imam means“leader” in Arabic, and the term is used in various contexts. Historically, Shia Imams maintained an adversarial relationship with Sunni Caliphates, who regarded Imams as enemies of the state.
Shia disagree about which Imam was the last and Shia sub-sects have developed. The Zaydis, in Yemen, recognize only five succeeding Imams and venerate the fifth, Zayd ibn Ali (for whom they are named). Ismailis, commonly known as Seveners, are named for Ismail, the son of Jafar al-Sadiq, the sixth Imam. Ismail died before his father and Ismailis contend that Ismail was the last to inherit Mohammad’s knowledge of God. Ismailis acquired power in Egypt during the tenth century, founding the Fatmid dynasty, which reigned for over 250 years (909-1171). Ismailis also inspired the Assassins in the twelfth century. Smaller Shia subsets include the Druze of the Levant, the Yezids of Iraq, the Alawi of Syria, and the Alevis of Turkey.
Approximately 90 percent of Shia are Jaafaris, otherwise known as Twelvers. The Jaafaris revere the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who disappeared in 939, leaving no descendents. A messianic-type of movement emerged among Jaafaris, proponents of which contended that the Twelfth Imam will return, accompanied by Jesus, initiating the end of the world and dispensing divine justice. Some scholars speculate that Shia messianism was influenced by Zoroastrianism and Judeo-Christianity. Ayatollah Khomeini often insinuated that his was the reincarnated Twelfth Imam. Notorious Iraqi cleric Moktada al-Sadr named his militia the Mahdi army, implying association with the Twelfth Imam (Muhammad al-Mahdi).
Shiaism diverges from Sunnism ideologically more than ritually. Commonly persecuted and oppression, Shia minorities deeply revere religious figures and have often embraced martyrdom. Sunnis, generally the dominant sect throughout the Islamic world, have usually emphasized Sharia (Islamic law) and majority rule. However, exceptions are common; for example, Ayatollah Khomeini is said to have been far more preoccupied with Sharia than reverence or ritual.
There are also numerous Sunni sub-sects, each associated with a sort of Sharia. The most influential type of Sharia in the Islamic world today is Hanafi, created by Abu Hanaifah, which dominates Turkey, the Balkans, Central Asia, Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang), Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. Three other schools of Islamic jurisprudence emerged in the generations succeeding Hanaifah. Malikis, named for Malik Ibn Anas, is prevalent in Muslim Spain and in North and West Africa. Shafi’is, named after Muhammad ibn al-Shafii, is influential in Egypt, the Middle East, Kurdistan, and among Muslims in Southeast Asia and in the Indian Ocean. Ahmad ibn Hanbal inspired the Hanbalis, proponents of a particularly fundamentalist theology, based entirely on the Koran and the Hadith (the Hadith is the collected traditions, teaching, and stories of the prophet Muhammad). Hanbali would become the dominant ideology throughout the Arabian Peninsula, eventually inspiring Wahhabism, which currently dominates the region.
Wahhabism was founded by Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who was born in 1703, in Najd in central Arabia. His movement advocated a return to authentic puritanical Islam, such as he imagined had existed during the time of Muhammad. Al-Wahhab was particularly offended by the veneration of humans, putting his followers in direct conflict with the Shia, who hold Ali and his descendents in high regard, often attributing to them divine status.
Al-Wahhab contested the Ottoman Caliphate, and encouraged his cohorts to revolt. In 1744, he fled to the village of Dariyah when threatened with arrest. Dariyah was ruled by Muhammad ibn Sa’ud. Sa’ud and al-Wahhab established a partnership in 1747. Over the next two centuries, Sa’ud/Wahhabi militias, assisted by the British government, conquered much of Arabia, seizing Mecca and Medina, Islam’s two most holy cities, in 1924. Today, Saudi Arabia is ruled by the House of Sa’ud (the royal family, descending from Muhammad ibn Sa’ud), which is currently reigned over by King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz al-Sa’ud. The House of Sa’ud has allocated religious authority to the descendents of al-Wahhab. The House of Sa’ud controls all of the Kingdom’s oil supplies.
“Wahhabi” is not a term used by most Saudis today; instead, Salafism is preferred. However, the Salafi tradition originated outside of the Arabian Peninsula. Salafi adherents opposed Western colonialism; they sought to emulate the Salaf or forerunners, the first two generations of Muslims. Salafis practice a form of Islam similar to Wahhabism and the terms have become conflated over the years.
J.G.
Sources:
“Ali.” The New Columbia Encyclopedia. 4th ed. 1975.
Armstrong, Karen. A History of God. The United States of America. Ballantine Books: 1993.
Nasr, Vali. The Shia Revival. Unites States of America. W.W. Norton & Company inc.: 2006.
Schwartz, Stephen. The Two Faces of Islam. New York, New York. Doubleday: 2002.
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